In this chapter, we discuss how our expanding space geometry generates basic physical concepts of mass and energy.

Conversely, the expansion can lock itself stably into confined volumes in certain conditions. These kinds of strain packages have a knot like structure, where the expanding space is constricted and tied down locally by the intrinsic tendency to expand in itself. This can be visualized by the squeezed balloon example in previous section, whose bulged out areas are now knotted.

Such a knotting mechanism can only form in certain conditions, and it forms elementary “particles” with mass. In knot-like strain formations, the expansion in each spatial dimension is curved locally towards different directions like knittings. Consequently, fundamental tendency to expand (the flux) ties itself into local volumes, and the compression that is formed locks itself through its own tendency to expand.

Protons (hadrons in general) are the basic example for such knots. However, many kinds of knots can be produced by using different kinds of knittings (folds-bends-twists-crossings). Inner dynamics in the knots are overviewed in Section 7.5 on “The Strong Force”, and “Formation Principles of Elementary Particles” are discussed on Chapter 10.

Figure 5.9 Photo: Knot on a balloon

This paper calls hadron family as knots considering the common usage. However, please note that our knots do not satisfy the exact definition of mathematical knots. They are not completely closed, but open-ended geometric formations; hence, they can be called braids.