(Applies to the confinement volume (leptons and hadrons) only, not to photons.)

As we discussed in previous chapters, all physical existence (geometric deformations of strain packages forming matter and energy) flow the equivalent distance towards time dimension, because physical reality is a complete continuum of the expansion of spatial dimension. However, the intrinsic flow in strain packages is confined into local volumes (circulating structures like knots or vortexes) during the universal strain on the expansion.

Very simply, the conserved property called electric charge can be conceptualized as the direction of the circulating flow of intrinsic action (flow of the expansion in the confinement volume) from the direction of time dimension.

Please note that readers should be very careful with this definition of the direction of rotation (the movement of an object in a circular motion). The direction of rotation (clockwise CW or counterclockwise CCW) around a fixed axis is not a property that is invariant (conserved) for all observers that are looking from another spatial coordinate in three dimensions. Since the axis of the rotation extends equally in two opposite directions in space, observers may be either in “front” or “behind” the rotating object. As a result, the direction of rotation (CW or CCW) differs depending on the location of the observer in relation to the rotating object.

On the other hand, the opposite directions of time dimension are not equivalent, just as it would be on a sphere where the radial direction (time) differs from the circumferential directions on the surface (space). In fact, time dimension emerges because of the spatial curvature in space, and it indicates the radius of curvature of spatial dimension. Therefore, (CW or CCW) direction of the intrinsic circulation of a strain package is always invariant from the specific direction of the time dimension.

In other words, if space (as a three-dimensional sphere) is viewed from the direction of time dimension, space is orientable (a consistent concept of CW or CCW rotation can be defined on the surface of a sphere (space) in a continuous manner). Therefore, the spin property of a strain package will not flip over, if that strain package could circulate all around the universe (sphere).

According to this point of view, we should emphasize that the intrinsic property charge is dependent on the direction from time dimension (similarly like looking from outside to a sphere). Hence, strain packages with an opposite charge have opposite (CW or CCW) directions of circulating intrinsic flow (of the expansion).

Figure 7.4 Photo of a knot on a balloon, wrinkles around the knot it

However, please note that opposite charge does not mean that positrons (opposite (+) charged electron) move towards the past; they just rotate in the opposite direction of electrons. In fact, both electron and positron are vortex-like strain packages on sphere (space) that expands as a complete whole.

On the other hand, intrinsic circulations in strain packages are more complicated than those circulations in an ordinary water whirlpool. In physical reality, all spatial dimensions fundamentally expand isotropically. Hence, the flow of confined spatial expansion is in three-dimensions. Yet, the flow of the expansion in each spatial dimension curves (rotates) towards another spatial dimension (x → y, x → -y, x → z, x → -z) like the flow of water in whirlpools, but consequently the other remaining dimension has deformations, too.

Strictly speaking, the existence of a constant geometric deformation (either curvature or torsion) in each individual spatial expansion means one-third (1/3) electric charge. However, charge is not related to the tightness of the curvature or the amount of the intrinsic circulations (Nrotations), but it is dependent on the existence of the deformation.

Eventually, the resultant (circulation) deformation in each spatial direction should be closed in space, so that the expansion can be confined in a volume to form mass. Therefore, strain packages with mass (like electrons or protons) have a resultant charge of either (-1) or (0) or (1) depending on the final direction of the circulating flow from the direction of time dimension.

Electrons are vortex-like formations, where the intrinsic flow of the expansion has curvature in two spatial dimensions, and torsion in the other spatial dimension. Electrons can be visualized as vortex rings that emerge around protons. However, the knots (hadrons) have more complex deformations (curvature and torsion), which differ in each spatial dimension. As a result, the expansion is locked and knotted locally in the confinement volumes.

Eventually, charges attract or repel each other according to the mechanism discussed in Section 7.3.